The lunar rush: mining the moon

The worldwide effort to design a mining operation on the moon is gaining momentum. Private companies are actively planning for lunar mining, indicating a growing interest in space resource extraction. Major powers are also eyeing the moon for its potential resources, leading to discussions about a lunar gold rush. Despite the excitement surrounding moon mining, there are important considerations related to governance in space mining that experts are addressing.

This trend towards space mining reflects a broader shift towards exploring and utilizing resources beyond Earth, with initiatives like mining in space becoming increasingly feasible. The legal aspects of moon mining are also coming under scrutiny, with space law experts weighing in on the implications and challenges associated with these endeavours.

On March 3, the Wall Street Journal published Mark Mills’ review of an important new book: “The War Below: Lithium, Copper, and the Global Battle to Power Our Lives” by Ernest Scheyder. Mills focused his review on the fact that governments “seek an expansion of global mining as part of the transition away from oil and coal.” The review pointed out that “the governments of Europe and the U.S. implement policies requiring that global mining expand, and soon, by 400% to 7,000%. Those policies are meant to force a transition away from the oil, natural gas, and coal that supply 80% of global energy. But it is an unavoidable fact that building the favoured transition machines — wind turbines, solar panels, electric cars — will require astonishing quantities of minerals to produce the same amount of energy.”

Several of the world’s leading space agencies, and some private companies, have recently shown a keen interest in mining on the moon. This trend is being driven by rising financial and environmental costs associated with Earth-based mining, and the capacity to extract valuable lunar resources like water, rare metals, and helium-3. 

While specific projects may vary, here is a general overview of some initiatives being considered:

NASA’s Artemis Program is a new lunar exploration program aimed at returning humans to the moon and eventually paving the way for future crewed missions to Mars, with the goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the moon by the mid-2020s. While not explicitly focused solely on mining, NASA intends to utilize lunar resources to support long-term human habitation. NASA has expressed interest in mining water ice at the lunar poles, which could be used for drinking water, breathable oxygen, and as a source of hydrogen for rocket fuel. The program originated from earlier NASA initiatives focused on returning to the moon: a U.S.-led program with commercial and international partners to enable human expansion across the solar system.

In 2019, the program was officially named “Artemis” after the Greek goddess of the moon and twin sister of Apollo, linking it to the famous Apollo program that first landed humans on the moon. The name was announced by NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, with the goal of landing the first woman and next man on the lunar surface. Artemis’ key components include the Space Launch System (SLS) mega rocket, the Orion crew capsule, the Lunar Gateway space station, and the Human Landing System (HLS) for descending to and ascending from the lunar surface. These elements draw from legacy programs like Constellation as well as new commercial partnerships.

However, timelines have shifted over the course of the decade as follows:

• Artemis 1 (2022): An uncrewed test flight of SLS and Orion around the moon, successfully completed in November 2022.
• Artemis 2 (2025): A crewed Orion flight beyond the moon and back, taking humans farther into space than ever before.
• Artemis 3 (2025): The first crewed lunar landing since Apollo, aiming to land the first woman and next man on the moon’s south pole region for about a week.
• Subsequent missions: Establishing a sustained lunar presence through the Lunar Gateway, surface habitats, rovers, and regular crew rotations, enabling future crewed missions to Mars.

The European Space Agency (ESA) has also shown interest in lunar mining as part of its broader lunar exploration plans. One of the main focuses is on prospecting for water ice, which could support future human missions and be converted into rocket fuel. The ESA’s moon village concept envisions a collaborative effort involving various countries and organizations, which could include mining activities.

China National Space Administration (CNSA) has been actively pursuing lunar exploration through its Chang’e program. While mining has not been a primary focus thus far, China has expressed interest in utilizing lunar resources for future missions. CNSA’s missions have included prospecting for lunar resources and understanding the composition of the lunar surface, which could lay the groundwork for future mining endeavors.

Commercial initiatives are getting financed and building momentum. Several private companies, such as SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Moon Express, have expressed interest in mining the moon for various resources. These companies see potential business opportunities in extracting resources like water, which could be used for space habitats or fuel production. Some companies are also interested in rare metals and helium-3, which could be used in advanced technologies like fusion reactors.

International collaborations and partnerships are emerging in lunar exploration and mining. For example, the Artemis Accords, initiated by NASA, aim to establish principles for cooperation among nations in lunar exploration, including resource utilization. These agreements could pave the way for multinational efforts in lunar mining.

While specific moon-based mining projects may differ in their objectives and approaches, there is certainly a common factor at work here: A growing interest in developing projects on the part of both government agencies and private entities. As the exorbitant costs for launching rockets have been tamed, exploring, and potentially exploiting the resources of the moon, is no longer considered to be far-fetched. To date, however, no large-scale lunar mining operations have been fully initiated; much of the current focus remains on prospecting and feasibility studies.

Establishing a mining operation on the moon will be challenging because of several factors: technology development, infrastructure requirements, and the specific objectives of the mission. The following cost components must be considered:

1. Launch cost: Launching payloads to the moon involves significant expenses. The cost per kilogram to send material to the moon can range from thousands to tens of thousands of dollars, depending on the launch vehicle and mission requirements. This cost includes the development and operation of rockets and associated infrastructure and launch services.
2. Technology development: Developing the necessary technology for lunar mining, including robotic systems, drilling equipment, resource extraction methods, and processing facilities, requires substantial investment. Research and development costs for modern technologies tailored to the lunar environment can be significant.
3. Mission design and operations: The expenses of planning and executing a lunar mining mission include mission design, spacecraft development, mission operations, and communication infrastructure. These costs include mission planning, spacecraft manufacturing, testing, and ongoing mission operations.
4. Infrastructure: Establishing infrastructure on the moon, such as habitats, power systems, communication networks, and transportation capabilities, adds to the overall cost of a mining operation. Building and maintaining infrastructure to support mining activities and human presence on the lunar surface require significant investment.
5. Resource assessment: Conducting resource assessments and prospecting missions to identify and characterize lunar resources adds to the overall cost. These missions involve the development and operation of instruments and spacecraft for remote sensing, sample collection, and analysis.
6. Regulatory compliance: Compliance with international treaties, agreements, and regulations governing space activities will entail additional costs. Companies and organizations involved in lunar mining must adhere to legal and regulatory frameworks established by their respective countries and international bodies.
7. Risks and contingencies: Factoring in risks and uncertainties associated with lunar mining operations is essential. Contingency planning and risk mitigation strategies add to overall mission costs.

It is challenging to provide a specific estimate for the total cost of establishing a lunar mining operation because of the varying nature of missions, technological advancements, and market conditions. However, some estimates suggest that initial lunar mining missions could cost billions of dollars, with costs decreasing as technology matures and infrastructure becomes more established. Additionally, the involvement of private companies and international collaborations will influence cost dynamics and funding sources for any one of the possible lunar mining ventures.

Three key potential benefits associated with mining on the moon are worth noting here:

1. Space resource utilization: moon mining offers the potential to extract valuable resources like water, helium-3, and rare earth elements, which could support future space missions and settlements.
2. Economic opportunities: There is a race between private and public sectors to mine the moon, indicating the economic benefits that could arise from space resource extraction.
3. Technological advancements: Mining on the moon could drive technological innovation in areas like robotics, resource extraction, and space infrastructure development.

At the same time, three big risks lurk in the near distance:

1. Business relationships: Moon mining poses risks in terms of business relationships, as various entities compete for access to lunar resources, potentially leading to conflicts or disputes.
2. Human safety: The safety of personnel involved in moon mining operations is a critical concern because of the harsh lunar environment and the challenges of operating in space.
3. Legal and governance challenges: There are legal complexities surrounding moon mining, including issues related to property rights, environmental impact, and international cooperation that need to be addressed.

The surge in interest in moon mining is becoming a key dimension of the growing worldwide focus on commercial space exploration and resource utilization.

Conclusion

The accelerating interest in lunar mining underscores a pivotal shift in humanity’s approach to space exploration and resource utilization. With private companies and major space agencies actively pursuing lunar mining initiatives, the moon is fast becoming the next frontier in the quest for valuable resources. These endeavors, driven by both economic and environmental factors, highlight the growing feasibility of space-based operations and the potential for significant technological advancements.

However, the journey towards establishing lunar mining operations is fraught with challenges. From the substantial costs associated with launching missions and developing the necessary technology to the intricate legal and regulatory frameworks that govern space activities, numerous obstacles must be overcome. The involvement of both governmental and private entities adds complexity, necessitating international cooperation and robust governance structures to manage potential conflicts and ensure the equitable distribution of resources.

The potential benefits of lunar mining are vast, promising new opportunities for economic growth, technological innovation, and the sustainability of future space missions. Yet, the risks — ranging from business disputes and human safety concerns to the legal intricacies of space mining — cannot be overlooked. As the prospect of extracting resources from the moon moves closer to reality, it is imperative to address these challenges thoughtfully and collaboratively.

The momentum behind lunar mining reflects a broader vision of a future where humanity extends its reach beyond Earth, harnessing the resources of the cosmos to drive progress. This new era of space exploration will require ingenuity, cooperation, and a commitment to ethical and sustainable practices to ensure that the benefits of space resources are realized for all.  

The moon’s most valuable minerals 

Based on both scientific analysis and geological projections, some of the most valuable minerals that could be mined on the moon include the following:

> Helium-3 (3He): This light, stable isotope of helium (with two protons and one neutron) is highly valuable for potential future fusion energy production. On Earth, helium-3 is rare and expensive, with prices varying widely depending on the source and purity. Estimated prices have ranged from $3,000 to $5,000 per gram.

> Water ice: While not a mineral in the traditional sense, water ice is crucial for sustaining life and supporting future human activities on the moon. It could also be used for rocket fuel (hydrogen and oxygen). Water is abundant in the solar system, but extracting and processing it on the moon could still be economically valuable.

> Rare earth elements (REEs): Elements such as neodymium, dysprosium, and yttrium are essential for various technological applications, including electronics, magnets, and renewable energy technologies. Here on Earth, REEs are valuable, and prices fluctuate, with some individual elements costing hundreds of dollars per kg.

> Titanium: Titanium is highly valued for its strength, corrosion resistance, and low density, making it useful in aerospace applications, among others. The price of titanium varies depending on factors such as grade and form, but it typically ranges from $2 to $10 per Ib.

> Platinum group metals (PGMs): These include platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, and osmium. They have various industrial applications, including catalytic converters, electronics, and jewelry. Prices for PGMs fluctuate significantly based on supply and demand, with platinum and palladium often being the most valuable among them. For example, platinum prices can range from $800 to $1,200 per oz., while palladium prices can be even higher.

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